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1)      C++ was invented by Bjarne Stroustrup in 1980 at AT&T lab while adding Object-oriented constructs to the C language.

2)      C++ is a General purpose OOP (Object –Oriented Programming) language.

3)      C++ is a middle-level language, because it has both high and low level language features.

4)      C++ is a best programming language for computer hardware interaction, a lot of control hardware, memory management, better performance etc.

5)      C++ was initially called as “C with classes”, so we can say C++ is an expanded version (new version) of C.

6)      Every C program can be compiled as C++ but not every C++ code is a C program.

7)      C++ supports both procedural and OOP concept, so it can also called as hybrid programming language.

8)      The Object-Oriented Approach has following features or properties

(i)                  Abstraction

(ii)                Encapsulation

(iii)               Polymorphism

(iv)               Inheritance

We will discuss these terms on following blogs.

This is very short introduction, but just enough for remembering about “C++ introduction”.

If size of array we declared is not fix, then we can allocate memory manually during run-time using inbuilt function like malloc, alloc etc.

This is known as dynamic memory allocation.

There are 4 library functions defined in <stdlib.h> makes dynamic memory allocation in C programming. These are malloc(), calloc(), realloc() and free().

1) malloc() - The name "malloc" stands for memory allocation.

The malloc() function reserves a block of memory of the specified number of bytes. And, it returns a pointer of type void which can be casted into pointer of any form.

Syntax of malloc():

ptr = (cast_type*) malloc(byte_size)

Considering the size of int is 4 bytes, this statement allocates 400 bytes of memory. And, the pointer ptr holds the address of the first byte in the allocated memory.

However, if the space is insufficient, allocation fails then returns a NULL pointer.

2) calloc() - The name "calloc" stands for contiguous allocation.

The malloc() function allocates a single block of memory. Whereas, calloc() allocates multiple blocks of memory and initializes them to zero.

Syntax of calloc()-

ptr = (cast_type*)calloc(n, element_size);

This statement allocates contiguous space in memory for n elements each with the size of element_size.

3) free() - Dynamically allocated memory created with either calloc() or malloc() doesn`t get freed on their own. We must use free() to release the space.

Syntax of free()-

free(ptr);

This statement frees the space allocated in the memory pointed by ptr.

4) realloc() - If the dynamically allocated memory is insufficient or more than required, we can change the size of previously allocated memory using realloc() function.

Syntax of realloc()-

ptr = realloc(ptr, x);

Here, ptr is reallocated with new size x.

Examples:

A function has a physical location in memory that can be assigned to a pointer. This address is the entry point of the function and can be used when the function is called. Once a pointer points to a function, the function can be called with help of that pointer. Function pointers also allow functions to be passed as arguments to other functions.

Example:

A pointer that does not currently point to a valid memory location is given the value null (which is zero). Null is used because no object will exist at the null address. Thus, any pointer that is null means that it points to nothing and should not be used.

One way to give a pointer a null value is to assign zero to it.

For example

char *p = 0;

or we can use NULL macro which is already defined to 0 in <stdio.h> header file.

The below code compiles successfully

int main()

{

     int *p;

     getchar();

     return 0;

}

But when we use the pointer it generates compile time error that “uninitialized local variable `p` used”. See below example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

     int *p;

     printf("%p", p);

     getchar();

     return 0;

}

For this, we can just initialize the pointer to a null value. The above code compile successfully if we initialize the pointer to 0;

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

     int *p = 0;

     printf("%p", p);

     getchar();

     return 0;

}

It shows the following output

00000000

We can make a pointer point to another pointer that points to a target value.

For example:

int **x;

[Note:  these are same.

int ** x;

int** x;

int **x;

]

This situation is called multiple indirection, or pointers to pointers.

In the case of a pointer to a pointer, the first pointer contains the address of the second pointer, which points to the object that contains the desired value.

Multiple indirections can be carried on to whatever extent desired, but more than a pointer to a pointer is rarely needed. Excessive indirection is difficult to follow and may generate errors.

To access the target value indirectly pointed to by a pointer to a pointer, we must apply the asterisk operator twice.

For example: 

Basically, we can say pointer and array are same in the nature but different in notation.

There is a close relationship between pointers and arrays.

Let s is an array of 10 integers. We define 5^th element of this array as equal 17. Now if we take a pointer to integer p and set it equal to s then we can access all element of array s from p. 5^th element of array will be *(p+5).

For example:

#include <stdio.h>

int main()

{

     int *p, s[10]; /* here by default all elements in array s are 0*/

     s[5] = 17; /* set 5th element to 17 */

     p = s; /* setting first element address to p */

     printf("%d", *(p + 5)); /* prints 17 */

     getchar();

}

Pointer Arithmetic:

Increment and decrement of pointers:

Suppose,

int x = 17;

int *p;

Now if x has stored in memory address 003FFC01, then p = &x sets the value 003FFC01 in p;

Suppose int takes 2 bytes for storing a value, then

p++;

sets the value  003FFC03 in p.

The same is true for decrement.

For example, assuming that p has the value 003FFC03, the expression

p--;

causes p to have the value 003FFC01.

Pointer Comparisons:

We can compare two pointers in a relational expression.

For example:

if (p < q) printf("p points to lower memory than q\n");

What Are Pointers?

A pointer is a variable that holds a memory address. This address is the location of another object (typically another variable) in memory.

For example, if one variable contains the address of another variable, the first variable is said to “pointer to the second”.

Suppose second variable is an int type then the first variable`s type is called “pointer to integer” (int*)

Why pointers are used:

1) Pointers can be used in functions so that their calling arguments could be modified

2) Pointers support dynamic memory allocation.

3) Pointers can improve the efficiency of certain routines().

4) Pointers provide support for dynamic data structures, such as binary trees and linked lists.

Use pointers carefully:

Pointers are one of the strongest but also one of the most dangerous features in C/C++.

For example, a pointer containing an invalid value can cause a program to crash.

Using pointers incorrectly, causing bugs that are very difficult to find.

Pointer Variables:

A pointer must be declared before we use it. A pointer declaration consists of a base type, an *, and the variable name. The general form for declaring a pointer variable is

            type *name;

where type is the base type of the pointer and may be any valid type. The name of the pointer variable is specified by name.

1) The base type of the pointer defines the type of object to which the pointer will point.

2) any type of pointer can point anywhere in memory.

3) all pointer operations are done relative to the pointer`s base type.

(an int * pointer always "thinks" that it points to an int object, no matter what that piece of memory actually contains.)

The Pointer Operators:

There are two pointer operators: * and &.

The & is a unary operator that returns the memory address of its operand & called as reference operator. (Or we speak it ampersand) 

m = &count;

places into m the memory address of the variable count.

This address is the computer`s internal location of the variable. It has nothing to do with the value of count. We can think of & as "the address of." Therefore,  m=&count means "m receives the address of count".

for example: if the variable count uses memory location 2000 to store its value, Also suppose that count has a value of 100. Then, m=&count means, m will have the value 2000.

pointer operator, *, is the complement of &.

It is a unary operator that returns the value located at the address that follows. For example, if m contains the memory address of the variable count,

q = *m;

 assigns the value of count into q. Thus, q will have the value 100 because 100 is stored at location 2000, which is the memory address that was stored in m. we can think of * as "at address." In this case, the preceding statement can be said as "q receives the value at address m".

Pointer Expressions:

i)                 Pointer Assignments:

We can use a pointer on the right-hand side of an assignment statement to assign its value to another pointer, when both pointers are the same type.

Example:

String is a simply an array of characters terminated by a null (or null character).

Or

A string is a null-terminated character array. (A null is zero.)

Or

A string contains the characters that make up the string followed by a null.

When declaring a character array that will hold a string, you need to declare it to be one character longer than the largest string that it will hold. For example, to declare an array str that can hold a 10-character string, we would write

char str[11];

Specifying 11 for the size makes room for the null at the end of the string.

When we use a quoted string constant in our program, we are also creating a null-terminated string. A string constant is a list of characters enclosed in double quotes.

Example: "hello there, this is a string"

Character arrays that hold strings allow a shorthand initialization that takes the form:

char  str[size] = "this is string";

This is the same as writing

char  str[size] = { `t`, `h`, `i`, `s`, ` `, `i`, `s`, ` `, `s`, `t`, `r`, `i`, `n`, `g`, `\0` };

Because strings end with a null. We can also put 0 in place of `\0`.

This is why str is 15 characters long even though "this is string" is only 14.

When we use the string constant, the compiler automatically supplies the null terminator.

We do not need to add the null to the end of string constants manually— the compiler does this automatically.

[Note: C++ also defines a string class, called string, which provides an object-oriented approach to string handling, but it is not supported by C.]

C supports a wide range of functions in <string.h> header that manipulate strings.

The most common are listed here:

Name Function

strcpy(s1, s2)              Copies s2 into s1

strcat(s1, s2)               Concatenates s2 onto the end of s1

strlen(s1)                    Returns the length of s1

strcmp(s1, s2)             Returns 0 if s1 and s2 are the same; less than 0 if s1<s2; greater than 0 if s1>s2

strchr(s1, ch)               Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of ch in s1

strstr(s1, s2)                Returns a pointer to the first occurrence of s2 in s1

Arrays of Strings:

To create an array of strings, we use a two-dimensional character array. The size of the left dimension determines the number of strings, and the size of the right dimension specifies the maximum length of each string. The following declares an array of 30 strings, each with a maximum length of 79 characters:

char str_array[30][80];

It is easy to access an individual string: we simply specify only the left index. For example, the following statement calls gets( ) with the third string in str_array.

gets(str_array[2]);

The preceding statement is functionally equivalent to

gets(&str_array[2][0]);

Examples: